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The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

Contents

CHAPTER 1

A

A. The first vowel and letter in the Sanskrit alphabet. Thephoneme "a" is thought to be the source of all other phonemesand its corresponding letter the origin of all other letters. Asthe basis of both the Sanskrit phonemic system and thewritten alphabet, the letter "a" thus comes to be invested withmystical significance as the source of truth, nondifferentiation,and emptiness (SUNYATA), or even of the universe as awhole. The Prajñaparamitasarvatathagatamata-Ekaksara,the shortest of the perfection of wisdom scriptures, alsodescribes how the entirety of the perfection of wisdom is subsumedby this one letter. The letter in the SanskritSiddham alphabet gained special significance within the esotericBuddhist traditions in Japan (MIKKYO), such as Shingon (seeShingonshu), which considered it to be the "seed" (BIJA) ofMahavairocana, the central divinity of esoteric Buddhism,and used it in a distinctive type of meditation called AJIKAN("contemplation of the letter 'a'"). The letter "a," which is saidto be originally uncreated (AJI HONPUSHO), is interpreted to bethe essence of all phenomena in the universe and theDHARMAKAYA of the buddha Mahavairocana. In the East AsianCHAN traditions, the letter "a" is also sometimes understoodto represent the buddha-nature (FOXING, S. BUDDHADHATU) ofall sentient beings.

abhabbatthana. (S. *abhavyasthana; T. *mi rung ba'i gnas;C. buwei; J. fui; K. purwi [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). In Pali, "condition of beingincapable" or "impossibility"; referring to nine immoral actsor inadequacies of character that an ARHAT is incapable ofperforming or possessing. Because he has destroyed the fourASRAVA, or contaminants—of sensuality (KAMA), becoming(BHAVA), ignorance (AVIDYA), and wrong views (DRSTI)—he isrendered forever "incapable" of engaging in the following acts:(1) deliberately killing any living being; (2) theft; (3) sexualintercourse; (4) deliberately lying; (5) accumulating personalpossessions for sensual indulgence, as would a layperson; orperforming wrong actions prompted by (6) attachment;(7) hatred; (8) stupidity; or (9) fear.

abhasvaracitta. In Sanskrit, "mind of clear light." SeePRABHASVARACITTA.

abhasvaraloka. (P.abhassaraloka; T. 'od gsal ba; C. jiguangjingtian/guangyintian; J. gokukojoten/koonten; K. kukkwangjongch'on/kwangumch'on [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). In Sanskrit, the"heaven of radiant light" (in Chinese, the name is also parsedas the "heaven of radiant sound"), the highest of the threeheavens associated with the second concentration (DHYANA) ofthe realm of subtle materiality (RUPADHATU). As the BRAHMAdivinities dwelling in this realm perpetually experience this profoundstate of meditation, they are described as subsisting onbliss (PRITI) and abiding in ease (SUKHA). Their bodies radiatelight in all directions like lightning or like flames from a torch.While the bodies of the divinities of this realm are uniform,their perceptions are diverse, and there is no assurance that theywill not be reborn in a lower realm of existence after their death.At the beginning of a world cycle, when the physical world(BHAJANALOKA) of the sensuous realm (KAMADHATU) has notyet been formed, and at the end of a world cycle when thatphysical world has been destroyed, many beings are reborninto the abhasvaraloka. A BODHISATTVA is never reborn in theimmaterial realm (ARUPYADHATU) even if he has achievedmeditative states consistent with that realm, but he may bereborn in the abhasvaraloka. The Buddha once disabused aBrahma god dwelling in that realm of the mistaken view thathe was eternal. This god, whose name was Baka, had been thefirst living being born in the abhasvaraloka after a period ofworld dissolution, and presumed that no one had existed beforehim. When the divinities (DEVA) of the abhasvaraloka are firstreborn in the realm of human beings (MANUSYA), they mayretain their divine attributes for a time, being spontaneouslygenerated rather than born viviparously, and possessing bodiesmade from subtle materiality rather than gross matter. However,as time passes and they take on the physical and mentalcharacteristics of ordinary human beings, they lose their luminosity,develop sexual characteristics, and come to subsist onsolid foods.

abhayadana. (T. mi 'jigs pa sbyin pa; C. wuwei [bu]shi/shi wuwei; J. mui[fu]se/semui; K. muoe[bo]si/si muoe[TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). In Sanskrit, the "gift of fearlessness";said to be one of the expanded list of three (sometimesfour) forms of giving/gifts (DANA), along with the "gift ofdharma" (DHARMADANA) and the "gift of material goods"(AMISADANA). This particular type of gift is typically offered byBODHISATTVAs, whose encouragement, consolation, teachingof the dharma, and so forth relieve the fears, worries, andtribulations of the beneficiary. The common Buddhist practiceof purchasing animals from butchers in order to save themfrom slaughter (see FANGSHENG) is considered to be a form ofabhayadana.

Abhayadattasri. (T.Mi 'jigs pa sbyin pa dpal). Indian authorof the early twelfth century to whom the text of tantric hagiographiesentitled *CATURASITISIDDHAPRAVRTTI ("Lives of the Eighty-FourSiddhas") is ascribed. According to the colophon of thiswork, the author is known as "the great guru from Camparain India."

Abhayagiri. A Sri Lankan monastery built at the capital ofAnuradhapura in first century BCE. The monastery wasconstructed for the elder Mahatissa by the Sinhala kingVattagamani Abhaya in gratitude for the monk's assistanceduring the king's political exile and his struggle for the throne.According to medieval Pali historical chronicles, Mahatissa wassaid to have been unrestrained and base in his behavior, whicheventually prompted the monks of the Mahavihara to pass anact of banishment (PRAVRAJANIYAKARMAN, P. pabbajaniyakamma)against him. Mahatissa thereafter conducted ecclesiastical ceremonies(SAMGHAKARMAN, P. sanghakamma) separately, and theAbhayagiri fraternity eventually seceded from the Mahavihara asa separate order of Sri Lankan Buddhism. The Abhayagiriflourished during the eleventh century, but, with the abandonmentof Anuradhapura in the thirteenth century, ceased to existas an active center. The site is today known for the massiveAbhayagiri Thupa (STUPA), one of the largest in Sri Lanka,which was rediscovered deep in a forest at the end of thenineteenth century.

Abhayakaragupta. (T. 'Jigs med 'byung gnas sbas pa)(d. c. 1125). Indian tantric Buddhist master who was born intoa brahmana family in either Orissa or northeast India nearBengal. Sources vary regarding his dates of birth and death,although most agree that he was a contemporary of the Palaking Ramapala, who began his reign during the final quarter ofthe eleventh century. Abhayakaragupta became a Buddhistmonk in response to a prophetic vision and trained extensivelyin the esoteric practices of TANTRA, while nevertheless maintaininghis monastic discipline (VINAYA). Abhayakaragupta wasactive at the monastic university of Vikramasila in Bihar andbecame renowned as both a scholar and a teacher. He was aprolific author, composing treatises in numerous fields of Buddhistdoctrine, including monastic discipline and philosophy aswell as tantric ritual practice and iconography. Many Sanskritmanuscripts of his works have been preserved in India, Nepal,and Tibet, and his writings were influential both in Indiaand among Newari Buddhists in Nepal. Translations of hisworks into Tibetan were begun under his supervision, and morethan two dozen are preserved in the Tibetan canon. To date,Abhayakaragupta's writings best known in the West arehis treatises on tantric iconography, the Vajravali andNispannayogavali, and his syncretistic ABHIDHARMA treatiseMunimatalamkara.

abhayamudra. (T. mi 'jigs pa'i phyag rgya; C. shiwuwei yin;J. semuiin; K. simuoe in [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). In Sanskrit, "the gesture offearlessness" or "gesture of protection"; also sometimes calledthe gesture of granting refuge. This gesture (MUDRA) is typicallyformed with the palm of the right hand facing outward atshoulder height and the fingers pointing up, although bothhands may simultaneously be raised in this posture in a doubleabhayamudra. Occasionally, the index, second, or third fingertouches the thumb, with the remaining fingers extendedupward. This gesture is associated with Sakyamuni Buddhaimmediately following his enlightenment, and standing buddhaimages will often be depicted with this mudra, portrayinga sense of the security, serenity, and compassion that derivefrom enlightenment. This gesture is also commonly associatedwith Amoghasiddhi.

Abheda. (T. Mi phyed pa). One of "the sixteen elders"or senior ARHATs in the Tibetan enumeration. See SODASASTHAVIRA.

abhibhvayatana. (P. abhibhayatana; T. zil gyis gnon pa'iskye mched; C. shengchu; J. shosho; K. su?ngch'o [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). InSanskrit, "sphere of sovereignty" or "station of mastery"; eightstages of transcendence over the sense spheres (AYATANA), whichare conducive to the development of meditative absorption(DHYANA). By recognizing from various standpoints that materialforms are external, one trains oneself to let go of attachmentsto material objects and focus exclusively on themeditation subject. The standard list of eight is as follows.When one perceives forms internally (viz., on one's own person),one sees forms external to oneself that are (1) limited andbeautiful or ugly (viz., pure and impure colors) or (2) unlimited,and beautiful or ugly, and masters them so that one is aware thatone knows and sees them; when one does not perceive formsinternally, one sees external forms that are (3) limited or (4)unlimited. When one does not perceive forms internally, onesees external forms that are (5) blue, (6) yellow, (7) red, or (8)white and masters them so that one is aware that one knows andsees them. In the Pali meditative literature, the earth and thecolor devices (KASINA) are said to be especially conducive todeveloping these spheres of sovereignty. Progress through thesespheres weans the mind from its attraction to the sensuousrealm (KAMADHATU) and thus encourages the advertence towardthe four meditative absorptions (DHYANA; RUPAVACARADHYANA)associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RUPADHATU),wherein the mind becomes temporarily immune to sensoryinput and wholly absorbed in its chosen object of meditation.

abhicara. [alt. abhicara] (T.mngon spyod). In Sanskrit, "magic"or "wrathful action"; in ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, the fourth ofthe four activities (CATURKARMAN) of the Buddhist tantric adept.Abhicara is broken down into marana "killing," mohana "enchanting,"stambhana "paralyzing," vidvesana "rendering harm throughanimosity," uccatana "removing or driving away," and vasikarana"subduing." After initiation (ABHISEKA), adepts who keep theirtantric commitments (SAMAYA) properly and reach the requisiteyogic level are empowered to use four sorts of enlightened activity,as appropriate: these four types of activities are (1) those thatare peaceful (S. SANTICARA); (2) those that increase prosperity, lifespan, etc. (PAUSTIKA), when necessary for the spread of thedoctrine; (3) those that subjugate or tame (S. VASIKARANA) theunruly; and finally (4) those that are violent or drastic measures(abhicara) such as war, when the situation requires it. In theMañjusrinamasamgiti, Canakya, Candragupta's minister, issaid to have used abhicara against his enemies, and because ofthis misuse of tantric power was condemned to suffer the consequencesin hell. Throughout the history of Buddhist tantra, thejustification of violence by invoking the category of abhicarahas been a contentious issue. Padmasambhava is said tohave tamed the unruly spirits of Tibet, sometimes violently, withhis magical powers, and the violent acts that Rwa lo tsa bain the eleventh century countenanced against those whocriticized his practices are justified by categorizing them asabhicara.

Abhidhammatthasangaha. In Pali, "Summary of theMeaning of Abhidharma"; a synoptic manual of PaliABHIDHARMA written by the Sri Lankan monk Anuruddha(d.u.), abbot of the Mulasoma Vihara in Polonnaruwa, sometimebetween the eighth and twelfth centuries CE, but mostprobably around the turn of the eleventh century. (Burmesetradition instead dates the text to the first century BCE.) Theterse Abhidhammatthasangaha has been used for centuries as anintroductory primer for the study of abhidharma in the monasteriesof Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of SoutheastAsia; indeed, no other abhidharma text has received more scholarlyattention within the tradition, especially in Burma, wherethis primer has been the object of multiple commentaries andvernacular translations. The Abhidhammatthasangaha includesnine major sections, which provide a systematic overview of PaliBuddhist doctrine. Anuruddha summarizes the exegesesappearing in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga, though the twoworks could hardly be more different: where the Visuddhimaggaoffers an exhaustive exegesis of Theravada abhidharma accompaniedby a plethora of historical and mythical detail, theAbhidhammatthasangaha is little more than a list of topics,like a bare table of contents. Especially noteworthy in theAbhidhammatthasangaha is its analysis of fifty-two mental concomitants(CETASIKA), in distinction to the forty-six listed inSarvastivada abhidharma and the Abhidharmakosabhasya.There is one major Pali commentary to the Abhidhammatthasangahastill extant, the Poranatika, which is attributedto Vimalabuddhi (d.u.). The Abhidhammatthasangaha appearsin the Pali Text Society's English translation series asCompendium of Philosophy.

Abhidhammavatara. InPali, "Introduction to Abhidhamma";a primer of Pali ABHIDHAMMA attributed to Buddhadatta (c. fifthcentury CE), who is said to have been contemporaneous withthe premier Pali scholiast Buddhaghosa; some legends go so faras to suggest that the two ABHIDHAMMIKAs might even have met.The book was written in south India and is the oldest of thenoncanonical Pali works on abhidhamma. It offers a systematicscholastic outline of abhidhamma, divided into twenty-four chapterscalled niddesas (S. nirdesa; "expositions"), and displays manyaffinities with Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga. These chaptersinclude coverage of the mind (CITTA) and mental concomitants(CETASIKA), the various types of concentration (SAMADHI), the typesof knowledge (JÑANA) associated with enlightenment, and theprocess of purification (visuddhi, S. VISUDDHI). The work is writtenin a mixture of prose and verse.

abhidhammika. [alt. abhidhammika]. In Pali, "specialist inthe ABHIDHAMMA"; scholarly monks who specialized in study ofthe abhidhamma (S. ABHIDHARMA) section of the Buddhistcanon. In the Pali tradition, particular importance has long beenattached to the study of abhidharma. The Atthasalini says thatthe first ABHIDHAMMIKA was the Buddha himself, and theabhidhammikas were presumed to be the most competent exponentsof the teachings of the religion. Among the Buddha'simmediate disciples, the premier abhidhammika was Sariputta(S. Sariputra), who was renowned for his systematic graspof the dharma. Monastic "families" of abhidhamma specialistswere known as abhidhammikagana, and they passed downthrough the generations their own scholastic interpretations ofBuddhist doctrine, interpretations that sometimes differed fromthose offered by specialists in the scriptures (P. sutta; S. SUTRA)or disciplinary rules (VINAYA). In medieval Sri Lanka, the highestawards within the Buddhist order were granted to monks whospecialized in this branch of study, rather than to experts in thescriptures or disciplinary rules. Special festivals were held inhonor of the abhidhamma, which involved the recital of importanttexts and the granting of awards to participants. In contemporaryMyanmar (Burma), where the study of abhidhammacontinues to be highly esteemed, the seventh book of the PaliABHIDHARMAPITAKA, the Patthana ("Conditions"), is regularlyrecited in festivals that the Burmese call pathan pwe. Pathanpwe are marathon recitations that go on for days, conducted byinvited abhidhammikas who are particularly well versed in thePatthana, the text that is the focus of the festival. The pathanpwe serves a function similar to that of PARITTA recitations, inthat it is believed to ward off baleful influences, but its maindesignated purpose is to forestall the decline and disappearanceof the Buddha's dispensation (P. sasana; S. SASANA). The Theravadatradition considers the Patthana to be the Buddha's mostprofound exposition of ultimate truth (P. paramatthasacca;S. PARAMARTHASATYA), and according to the Pali commentaries,the Patthana is the first constituent of the Buddha's dispensationthat will disappear from the world as the religion faces itsinevitable decline. The abhidhammikas' marathon recitationsof the Patthana, therefore, help to ward off the eventualdemise of the Buddhist religion. This practice speaks of aTHERAVADA orientation in favor of scholarship that goes backwell over a thousand years. Since at least the time ofBuddhaghosa (c. fifth century CE), the life of scholarship (P.PARIYATTI), rather than that of meditation or contemplation(P. PATIPATTI), has been the preferred vocational path withinPali Buddhist monasticism. Monks who devoted themselvesexclusively to meditation were often portrayed as personswho lacked the capacity to master the intricacies of Pali scholarship.Even so, meditation was always recommended asthe principal means by which one could bring scriptural knowledgeto maturity, either through awakening or the realization(P. pativedha; S. PRATIVEDHA) of Buddhist truths. See alsoAbhidharmika.
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