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Definition
Islamic Caliphates
Caliphate (“Khilafat” in Arabic) was a semi-religious political system of governance in Islam, in which the territories of the Islamic empire in the Middle East and North Africa and the people within were ruled by a supreme leader called...

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Seals of the Indus Valley Civilisation
Seals excavated from sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation and now housed at the National Museum, New Delhi, India. 3000 - 1700 BCE

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Lost Civilisations of Anatolia: Göbekli Tepe
Göbekli Tepe is the world's oldest example of monumental architecture; a 'temple' built at the end of the last Ice Age, 12,000 years ago. It was discovered in 1995 CE when, just a short distance from the city of Şanliurfa in Southeast Turkey...

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Ibn Sina, Biruni, and the Lost Enlightenment
Ibn Sina and Biruni were two of the most outstanding thinkers to have lived between ancient Greece and the European Renaissance. These two giants of a lost era of enlightenment were born in Central Asia about the year 980. For six hundred...

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Lost Treasures From Iraq: Revisited & Identified
For how long do we build a household? For how long do we seal a document? For how long do brothers share the inheritance? For how long is there to be jealousy in the land(?)? The Epic of Gilgamesh, chapter 10, Tablet X. I have always...

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How the Rabbit Lost His Tail
How the Rabbit Lost His Tail is a Sioux legend, part origin myth and part didactic tale, explaining why the rabbit looks as it does, why the owl is a night bird, and how one should treat a member of one’s family and also one’s community...

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Pizarro and Atahualpa: The Curse of the Lost Inca Gold
In November 1532 CE, Francisco Pizarro led a group of about 160 conquistadors into the Inca city of Cajamarca. The illiterate and illegitimate son of an Extremaduran nobleman and an impoverished woman, Pizarro had spent his entire life on...

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Islamic Conquests in the 7th-9th Centuries
A map illustrating the rise and expansion of early Islamic caliphates from the Prophet Muhammad until the 9th century.

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Expansion of Early Islamic Caliphates
This map shows the expansion of the Islamic Caliphates in the 7th and 8th Centuries CE: 1. Dark Shade: Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622-632 CE. 2. Medium Shade: Expansion under the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661 CE. 3. Light Shade...

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Rashidun-era Islamic Coin
Islamic coin of Arab-Sasanian origin. From Bishapur, Persia. Made c. 651-661 CE, during the Rashidun Caliphate. Left: Sasanian style bust imitating Kosrau II (r. 590-628 CE). Right: Fire altar with ribbons and attendants, star and crescent...