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Edward II of England reigned as king from 1307 to 1327 CE. Succeeding his father Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307 CE), his reign saw a disastrous defeat to the Scots at Bannockburn in June 1314 CE, and the king's lack of political and military...

James II of Scotland ruled as king from 1437 to 1460. Succeeding his murdered father James I of Scotland (r. 1406-1437), James inherited the throne as a child. The first part of his reign witnessed intense rivalries between rival barons...

People in the Middle Ages have acquired something of a bad reputation when it comes to cleanliness, especially the peasantry. However, despite the general lack of running water and other modern amenities, there were common expectations of...

Henry II of England ruled from 1154 to 1189 CE. He gained the throne by negotiation with his predecessor King Stephen of England (r. 1135-1154 CE) following the civil war that had raged between that monarch and Henry's mother Empress Matilda...

Castle of Melfi, an important Norman stronghold in Southern Italy.

Bodiam Castle in East Sussex, England was built in 1385 by Sir Edward Dallingridge. It was constructed not only for military reasons (threat of French invasion and risk of peasant rebellion) but also as a comfortable home with over 33 fireplaces...

It is said that Chester is the richest city in Britain in terms of archaeological and architectural treasures. One of the finest strategic outposts of the Roman Empire, it is one of the few walled cities left in Britain today. Rachael Lindsay...

Dunluce Castle in County Antrim, Northern Ireland was built around 1500 CE. The castle was abandoned in 1639 CE, and the town surrounding the castle was abandoned just two years later. This gif shows a reconstruction of the ruined castle...

Johannisburg Palace, the second residence of the Electoral Archbishops of Mainz until 1803, is located in the centre of Aschaffenburg on the banks of the Main, Bavaria. The mighty four-wing complex, built between 1605 and 1614 under Archbishop...

The Upper Ward of Windsor Castle, England. The castle was first built by William the Conqueror c. 1070 CE and then added to by many monarchs thereafter.