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The Invasion of Poland in 1939
Article by Mark Cartwright

The Invasion of Poland in 1939

The leader of Nazi Germany Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) ordered the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. Hitler's refusal to withdraw brought a declaration of war from Britain and France on 3 September, and so began the Second World War (1939-45...
The Legacy of Charles Martel & the Battle of Tours
Article by Christopher L. Serafin

The Legacy of Charles Martel & the Battle of Tours

The Battle of Poitiers aka the Battle of Tours took place over roughly a week in early October of 732. The opposing sides consisted of a Frankish army led by Charles Martel (r. 718-741) against an invading Muslim army under the nominal sovereignty...
The Grand Embassy of Peter the Great
Article by Liana Miate

The Grand Embassy of Peter the Great

The Grand Embassy was the name given to the long Western European tour that Tsar Peter I of Russia (aka Peter the Great, r. 1682-1725) undertook during 1697-1698. Peter was joined by hundreds of people, including noblemen, his friends, volunteers...
Battle of Civitate
Article by Christopher L. Serafin

Battle of Civitate

The Battle of Civitate was fought in southeastern Italy on 18 June 1053 between a papal army of Pope Leo IX (r. 1049-1054) and an outnumbered force of Norman knights seeking recognition of their conquests and titles. The Normans were victorious...
Battle of Castiglione
Article by Harrison W. Mark

Battle of Castiglione

The Battle of Castiglione (5 August 1796) was one of the most important battles of Napoleon's Italian Campaign of 1796-97. After laying siege to the vital fortress of Mantua, General Napoleon Bonaparte and his Army of Italy defeated an Austrian...
Battle of Lodi
Article by Harrison W. Mark

Battle of Lodi

The Battle of Lodi (10 May 1796) was a minor, yet important, engagement during Napoleon's Italian Campaign of 1796-97. Although the battle itself held little military significance, victory at Lodi gave General Napoleon Bonaparte the respect...
Interview: Metsamor Archaeological Site
Interview by James Blake Wiener

Interview: Metsamor Archaeological Site

Metsamor, which is located 32 km (20 mi) west of Yerevan, Armenia is one of the most interesting archaeological sites in the Caucasus. While first settled and founded as a Bronze Age city, people continuously inhabited Metsamor through Urartian...
Map of Europe Before the Fall of Constantinople, c. 1450
Image by Simeon Netchev

Map of Europe Before the Fall of Constantinople, c. 1450

This map illustrates the political landscape of Europe, East Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa around the year 1450 CE—a pivotal moment on the eve of major geopolitical transformations. At this time, the Byzantine Empire clung to its...
Map of Jeanne d'Arc's Route & The Hundred Years' War c. 1429
Image by Simeon Netchev

Map of Jeanne d'Arc's Route & The Hundred Years' War c. 1429

This map illustrates the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) at its pivotal moment in 1429, when Joan of Arc’s (French: Jeanne d'Arc) whirlwind campaign shifted momentum toward the Dauphin, Charles VII of France (reigned 1422–1461). It contrasts...
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