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Philip II of Spain by Moro
A 16th century CE portrait by Giacomo Antonio Moro of Philip II of Spain (r. 1556-1598 CE).

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Philip II of Macedon's 339 BC Campaign
Map of Philip II of Macedon's campaign in Greece, 339 BC

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Philip II of Macedon (Artist's Impression)
Philip II of Macedon (r. 359 BCE - 336 BCE) depicted in the game Old World.

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Philip II, Macedonian Silver Tetradrachm
Macedonian silver tetradrachm from the reign of Philip II, 359-336 BCE. O: Head of Zeus. R: Horseman carrying a palm branch.

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Reformation in the Netherlands & the Eighty Years' War
The Protestant Reformation in the Netherlands was among the most violent and destructive of any region during the first 50 years of the movement, ultimately informing the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648), but causing massive destruction and...

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The Macedonian Kingdom at Philip II's Death, c. 336 BCE
This map illustrates the state of the Macedonian Kingdom at the time of Philip II's death in 336 BCE, a powerful and unified state in northern Greece, poised to dominate the ancient world. Through military reform, strategic diplomacy, and...

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Philip II of Rome (Artistic Facial Reconstruction
A photorealistic representation of what the Roman emperor Philip II (r. 247-249 CE) may have looked like. The young emperor was elevated to co-emperor by his father in 247 CE at the age of 10. Based on contemporary and near contemporary descriptions...

Definition
Decius
Decius was Roman emperor from 249 to 251 CE. In 249 CE Roman emperor Philip the Arab sent senator Decius to be the governor of the troubled provinces of Moesia and Pannonia. Roman legions under the ineffective command of the governor there...

Definition
Pezhetairoi
The pezhetairoi (foot companions) were part of the imposing army that accompanied the Macedonian commander Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BCE) when he crossed the Hellespont to face the Persian king Darius III in 334 BCE. Armed with long...

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The Sea Dogs - Queen Elizabeth's Privateers
The sea dogs, as they were disparagingly called by the Spanish authorities, were privateers who, with the consent and sometimes financial support of Elizabeth I of England (r. 1558-1603 CE), attacked and plundered Spanish colonial settlements...