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Tiara of Pope Pius IX
The tiara of Pope Pius IX (in office 1846-1878). Made in 1854. Made of a trio of gold crowns set with diamonds, emeralds, sapphires, pearls, and other jewels around a silver-thread fabric. It measures 35 cm (13.7 in) in height and diameter...

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Physical Examination of a New Pope
A 1645 illustration showing a cardinal checking that Pope Innocent X (in office 1644-55) is indeed a man.

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Pope Joan Giving Birth
A c. 1450 illustration showing Pope Joan giving birth during a procession. Pope Joan was a legendary female pope of the Middle Ages said to have reigned from 855 to 858. Her existence is disputed. (Spencer Collection)

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Pope Joan
A 15-16th century manuscript illustration of Pope Joan, a legendary female pope of the Middle Ages said to have reigned from 855 to 858. Her existence is disputed. (Bibliothèque nationale de France).

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Caesarion
Ptolemy XV Caesar “Theos Philopator Philometor” (“the Father-loving Mother-loving God”) (c. 47-30 BCE), better known by his unofficial nickname Caesarion or “Little Caesar” in Greek, was the oldest son of Cleopatra VII (69-30 BCE) and was...

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Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket (aka Thomas á Becket) was chancellor to Henry II of England (r. 1154-1189) and then archbishop of Canterbury (1162 to 1170). Thomas repeatedly clashed with his sovereign over the relationship between the Crown and Church, particularly...

Definition
Johann Tetzel
Johann Tetzel (l.c. 1465-1519) was a Dominican Friar who became famous as one of the most effective indulgence salesmen and who inadvertently inspired the Protestant Reformation when Martin Luther (l. 1483-1546) wrote his 95 Theses protesting...

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Pope Urban II
A statue of Pope Urban II (r. 1088-1099 CE) who called for the First Crusade (1095-1202 CE). Clermont-Ferrand, France.

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Pope Innocent III & the Albigensian Crusade
A medieval manuscript illustration showing Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE)
and the crusaders of the Albigensian Crusade in southern France (1209-1229 CE). (Chronicles of Saint-Denis, British Library, London)

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Pope Gregory VII, Pitigliano Cathedral
Stained glass window of Pope Gregory VII (1015-1085) at the Pitigliano Cathedral, Italy.