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Coin Depiction of Louis the Pious
Image by The Trustees of the British Museum

Coin Depiction of Louis the Pious

9th-century silver coin depicting Louis the Pious, Holy Roman Emperor and King of the Franks (r. 814-840). The British Museum, London.
Albigensian Crusade
Definition by Mark Cartwright

Albigensian Crusade

The Albigensian Crusade (aka Cathars' Crusade, 1209-1229 CE), was the first crusade to specifically target heretic Christians - the Cathars of southern France. Not successful in repressing the heresy, the on-off campaigns over two decades...
The Three Estates of Pre-Revolutionary France
Article by Harrison W. Mark

The Three Estates of Pre-Revolutionary France

Society in the Kingdom of France in the period of the Ancien Regime was broken up into three separate estates, or social classes: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. These classes and their accompanying power dynamics, originating...
Louis-Antoine de Bougainville
Image by Château de Versailles

Louis-Antoine de Bougainville

Louise-Antoine, Compte de Bougainville (1729-1811) was a French explorer and former army colonel, who was also a brilliant mathematician. He was a contemporary of Captain James Cook (1728-1779) and a protegée of Madame de Pompadour (1721-1764...
Jacques Necker
Definition by Harrison W. Mark

Jacques Necker

Jacques Necker (l. 1732-1804) was a Swiss banker and statesman who served as finance minister to King Louis XVI of France (r. 1774-1792). He served in the king's ministry three separate times, tasked with navigating France through its dire...
Affair of the Diamond Necklace
Article by Harrison W. Mark

Affair of the Diamond Necklace

The affair of the diamond necklace (1784-86) was a scandal that centered around Queen Marie Antoinette of France (l. 1755-1793). Although the queen was innocent of any involvement in a plot to steal a luxurious diamond necklace, the scandal...
Storming of the Bastille
Definition by Harrison W. Mark

Storming of the Bastille

The Storming of the Bastille was a decisive moment in the early months of the French Revolution (1789-1799). On 14 July 1789, the Bastille, a fortress and political prison symbolizing the oppressiveness of France’s Ancien Régime was attacked...
Diderot by Louis-Michel van Loo
Image by Louis-Michel van Loo

Diderot by Louis-Michel van Loo

A 1767 oil on canvas portrait by Louis-Michel van Loo of the French author and philosopher Diderot (1713-1784). (Louvre Museum, Paris)
Death of Louis IX at Tunis, 1270 CE
Image by Jean Fouquet

Death of Louis IX at Tunis, 1270 CE

A 15th century CE painting depicting the death of French king Louis IX in 1270 CE during the Eighth Crusade at Tunis.
Portrait of Louis-Antoine de Saint-Just
Image by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon

Portrait of Louis-Antoine de Saint-Just

Louis-Antoine de Saint-Just (1767-1794), a leader of the Jacobin Club and of the Mountain political faction, oil on canvas portrait by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, 1793. Only 25 when he was elected to the National Convention, Saint-Just soon became...
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