Images

The grave of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) at the Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague, Netherlands.

An early 20th-century painting by Samuel Hirszenberg of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) illustrating his excomunication by the Jewish community in Amsterdam around 1656 for his radical views.

A c. 1665 portrait of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677). (Herzog August Library, Wolfenbüttel, Germany)

The calculating machine capable of multiplication and division invented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. (Technische Sammlungen Museum, Dreseden, Germany)

A 1695 oil-on-canvas portrait by Christoph Bernhard Francke of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. (Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, Braunschweig, Germany)

A statue of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria.

A c. 1700 portrait of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. Painted by Johann Friedrich Wentzel (1670–1729).

An infographic depicting the government of the Roman Republic, a complex political system that evolved over centuries. It was characterized by a balanced structure that included elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Key features...

A Cheyenne Chief, His Wife, and a Medicine Man, oil on card mounted on paperboard by George Catlin, 1861/1869 National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

A c. 1780 statue by Augustin Pajou of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), the French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher. Pascal is shown contemplating a mathematical problem involving the cycloid. (Louvre, Paris)