Images

An early 20th-century painting by Samuel Hirszenberg of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) illustrating his excomunication by the Jewish community in Amsterdam around 1656 for his radical views.

A c. 1665 portrait of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677). (Herzog August Library, Wolfenbüttel, Germany)

The calculating machine capable of multiplication and division invented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. (Technische Sammlungen Museum, Dreseden, Germany)

A 1695 oil-on-canvas portrait by Christoph Bernhard Francke of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. (Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, Braunschweig, Germany)

A statue of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria.

A c. 1700 portrait of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. Painted by Johann Friedrich Wentzel (1670–1729).

An infographic depicting the government of the Roman Republic, a complex political system that evolved over centuries. It was characterized by a balanced structure that included elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Key features...

A Cheyenne Chief, His Wife, and a Medicine Man, oil on card mounted on paperboard by George Catlin, 1861/1869 National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

A c. 1780 statue by Augustin Pajou of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), the French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher. Pascal is shown contemplating a mathematical problem involving the cycloid. (Louvre, Paris)

Sir Guy Carleton, British general and Governor of Quebec during the American Revolutionary War. Portrait by an unknown artist, 1923. National Archives of Canada, Ottawa.