Images

A posthumous portrait lithographic print of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677). (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)

The grave of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) at the Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague, Netherlands.

An early 20th-century painting by Samuel Hirszenberg of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) illustrating his excomunication by the Jewish community in Amsterdam around 1656 for his radical views.

A c. 1665 portrait of the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677). (Herzog August Library, Wolfenbüttel, Germany)

The calculating machine capable of multiplication and division invented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. (Technische Sammlungen Museum, Dreseden, Germany)

A 1695 oil-on-canvas portrait by Christoph Bernhard Francke of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. (Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, Braunschweig, Germany)

A statue of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria.

A c. 1700 portrait of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the German polymath. Painted by Johann Friedrich Wentzel (1670–1729).

This infographic illustrates the government of the Roman Republic (c. 509–27 BCE), a political system that combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Over nearly five centuries, the Republic developed institutions designed...

A Cheyenne Chief, His Wife, and a Medicine Man, oil on card mounted on paperboard by George Catlin, 1861/1869 National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.