Images

A 19th-century portrait by Eliseo Sala of the Italian philosopher and legal reformer Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794). (Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan)

A c. 1624 oil-on-canvas painting by Gerard van Honthorst (1592-1656) titled The Merry Violinist. (Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid)

Portrait of George Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Oil on canvas by Rembrandt Peale, c. 1850. De Young Museum, San Francisco.

A front view of Cliveden (or the Chew House) in which 120 British soldiers barricaded themselves during the Battle of Germantown (4 October 1777), slowing the American attack. Photo by Wikipedia user Djmaschek, 14 October 2011.

Portrait of Sir William Howe, British general during the American Revolutionary War. By Henry Bryan Hall, 1872. New York Public Library, The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection.

Map depicting the initial movement of American troops at the Battle of Germantown (4 October 1777). U.S. Army Center of Military History.

The Americans laying siege to a stone mansion called Cliveden (or the Chew House) during the Battle of Germantown (4 October 1777). By Christian Schussele, before 1880. New York Public Library.

A depiction of the Battle of Paoli (known to the Americans as the Paoli Massacre) when, on the night of 20 September 1777, a party of British soldiers launched a surprise attack on an American encampment. By Xavier della Gatta, 1782...

Map depicting the Battle of Brandywine (11 September 1777). History Department of the United States Military Academy, 2010.

American troops hold back the British at the Battle of Brandywine (11 September 1777). Illustration in Scribner's magazine, vol. 23, June 1898, p. 711, by F. C. Yohn. Library of Congress, Washington D.C.