Berenike IV (r. 58-55 BCE) was queen of Ptolemaic Egypt and the older sister of Cleopatra VII (r. 51-30 BCE). She ruled briefly after her father Ptolemy XII was overthrown by a popular rebellion. Berenike IV's reign ended in 55 BCE when her father reconquered Egypt with a mercenary Roman army and ordered her execution.
Early Life & Background
Berenike IV was born in Egypt in the mid-1st century BCE. She was a princess of the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt from 323 until 30 BCE. As the eldest child of Ptolemy XII (r. 80-51 BCE) and his queen Cleopatra V Tryphaena, Berenike IV was the presumed heir to the throne. When she was a child, her mother was removed from the throne and Ptolemy XII became sole ruler. According to the Roman historian Strabo (c. 64 BCE to c. 24 CE), Berenike IV was the only legitimate child of Ptolemy XII. Modern historians have debated whether this claim is true, especially the question of whether Berenike IV's famous sister Cleopatra VII (l. 70/69-30 BCE) was illegitimate or not. Berenike IV's other siblings were born to an unknown woman who might have been one of her father's wives or concubines. All of Berenike IV's siblings ruled briefly, including Arsinoë IV (d. 41 BCE), Ptolemy XIII (l. 62/61-47 BCE), and Ptolemy XIV (l. 60/59-44 BCE).
Most of Berenike IV's youth would have been spent at Alexandria, the glamorous capital of Egypt. During Berenike IV's childhood, Egypt was destabilized by national debt and civil unrest. Although her father invested in Egypt's temples and libraries, he was seen as a bad king by his subjects. He raised high taxes to help pay off his personal debts while spending money on musical competitions and pageants. He also built a close relationship with the Roman Republic at a time when anti-Roman sentiment was popular in Alexandria. His reputation for drunkenness and laziness drew ridicule from the Alexandrians, who derisively nicknamed him the "Flute-Player" and "the Bastard".
Ptolemy XII's courtiers forced him to abdicate in favour of his eldest daughter, Berenike IV. The king's overthrow was backed by the Alexandrian mob, well accustomed to flexing its political muscles, and seems to have been inspired by a growing anti-Roman sentiment – only exacerbated by incidents such as the killing of the cat two years earlier.
(Wilkinson, 239)
Hostility towards Ptolemy XII's reign reached its climax in 58 BCE when Rome annexed the Ptolemaic island of Cyprus. The outraged Egyptians directed their anger over this loss at their king, who failed to prevent it. In 58 BCE, the citizens of Alexandria rose up and overthrew Ptolemy XII. He fled to Greece in fear for his life, leaving behind his children.
Reign
As the oldest living heir and only adult child of Ptolemy XII, Berenike IV was declared queen of Egypt. It is not known whether Berenike IV was involved in her father's usurpation, or whether she merely took advantage of his removal. She may have had no choice but to accept the crown when the rebels offered it to her. Berenike IV initially co-ruled with a woman named Cleopatra Tryphaena. The 3rd-century CE Roman historian Porphyry describes this woman as one of Berenike IV's sisters, but modern historians usually identify her as Berenike IV's mother Cleopatra V Tryphaena. Cleopatra Tryphaena died in 57 BCE, leaving Berenike IV as sole ruler.
Ptolemy XII was unwilling to accept his fall from power and went to Rome in the hopes of buying an army to retake Egypt. Berenike IV feared a Roman invasion, as she realized that the Ptolemaic army would quickly be defeated by the superior Roman military. She sent a delegation of 100 Alexandrian diplomats to Rome to convince the Roman Senate not to assist Ptolemy XII. Their task was to describe the old king's tyranny and explain why he had been overthrown. However, Ptolemy XII had most of the diplomats assassinated, and those left alive were too afraid to testify against him before the Senate.
In spite of Ptolemy XII's efforts to win the Senate's favor through bribes, they were reluctant to assist him. Prominent senators feared that conquering Egypt would give a general enough wealth and popularity to become a tyrant. It was also believed that the Sibylline books of prophecy contained a warning against helping an Egyptian king. The Senate ultimately forbade the Roman consul Pompey the Great (106-48 BCE) from intervening. Ptolemy XII was more successful at bribing Pompey's lieutenant Aulus Gabinius, the governor of Syria. Against the orders of the Senate, Gabinius began making preparations to invade Egypt after Ptolemy XII promised to pay him 10,000 talents of silver.
Marriages & Betrothals
While Berenike IV was considerably more popular than her father, her right to rule was uncertain. Women did not often rule alone in Ptolemaic Egypt, they were usually expected to share power with a male co-ruler like a husband or son. There was popular pressure to install a king on the Egyptian throne. Since both of her brothers were infants, she needed a husband to rule alongside her. It was unacceptable in Hellenistic society for a queen to marry a man of low birth. Additionally, Ptolemaic royal women traditionally married male relatives to ensure that the king was of Ptolemaic descent. The only exceptions were diplomatic marriages with their rivals and distant relatives, like the Seleucid dynasty. Thanks to intermarriages from earlier in their history, any prince of Seleucid descent had a valid claim to the Ptolemaic throne.
The remaining Seleucids were living in exile after Rome conquered the Seleucid Empire in 63 BCE, so a search began for an eligible prince. Berenike IV sent invitations to several Seleucid princes, offering them her hand in marriage. Although several of these princes hoped to marry Berenike IV, a series of misfortunes befell each of them in turn. The first prince, Antiochus, contracted an illness while marriage discussions were underway. Her second choice, Philip, was stopped by Gabinius who was intimidating her suitors to prevent her from making a political marriage.
A man named Seleucus, claiming to be the son of Cleopatra Selene I, managed to reach Alexandria and offer himself to Berenike IV. He seemed surprisingly crude to the Alexandrian citizens, who nicknamed him Kybiosaktes ("Fishmonger") to mock his vulgarity. Nevertheless, Berenike IV proceeded with the wedding and Seleucus became king. Doubts about his ancestry began to circulate, and rumors spread that he was an impostor. Modern historians are uncertain about whether he fabricated his background or was a legitimate prince. Berenike IV almost immediately regretted their marriage, and Seleucus was strangled only a few days after their wedding. The historian Cassius Dio (c. 164 to c. 229/235 CE) claimed that Berenike IV killed Seleucus because the people did not respect him as king, while Strabo claimed that it was because she could not bear his uncouth and abusive behavior.
In 56 BCE, Gabinius began making preparations to invade Egypt. He gathered the legions usually tasked to defend Syria and began marching through Palestine. He received weapons and money for financing the expedition from Antipater I, the procurator of Judea. While this was occurring, Gabinius' friend and lieutenant Archelaus received a marriage invitation from Berenike IV. Archelaus claimed to be the son of Mithridates VI of Pontus, but he was actually his grandson. His father, also named Archelaus, was one of the Mithridates' most trusted generals. The young Archelaus was considered a clever and energetic soldier and commanded a powerful navy that could be used to defend against Roman invasion. Gabinius began to suspect that Archelaus intended to marry Berenike IV and promptly arrested him. Archelaus either escaped himself or was set free by Gabinius so that he could join Berenike IV in Egypt. By marrying Archelaus, a foreigner, Berenike IV broke with the centuries-long Ptolemaic tradition of marrying their own relatives.
Downfall & Death
In 55 BCE, Gabinius launched his invasion of Egypt. The unprepared Egyptians at the fortified city of Pelusium were quickly overrun. Many of the ensuing battles were led by Gabinius' lieutenant Mark Antony (83-30 BCE), who was Archelaus' old friend. Despite their former relationship, Archelaus and Antony upheld their duty to fight one another. Archelaus died in combat, possibly at the hands of Gabinius. Antony ensured that Archelaus was given a royal burial with full honors. With the Egyptian army depleted, Alexandria was left completely defenseless.
Gabinius conquered them, and after slaying Archelaus and many others he immediately gained control of all Egypt and delivered it over to Ptolemy. Now Ptolemy killed his daughter and the foremost and richest of the other citizens, because he had much need of money.
(Cassius Dio, 39.58, trans. Herbert Baldwin Foster)
Gabinius soon captured Alexandria, accompanied by Ptolemy XII. Left paranoid and vengeful after his previous usurpation, the king began killing those who had opposed him. He considered massacring citizens as a punishment for their rebellion until Mark Antony convinced him to show mercy. Instead, Ptolemy XII executed Berenike IV and a small number of powerful Alexandrians. Regardless of any personal feelings he may have felt towards his daughter, Ptolemy XII believed that her death was necessary to prevent future threats to his reign.
After the war, Gabinius was charged with several crimes related to his invasion of Egypt. He was exiled by the Senate and never regained his political power. Ptolemy XII lived for only a few more years before dying of natural causes in 51 BCE. Berenike IV's younger sister Cleopatra VII became queen afterwards, reigning for over 20 years. She seems to have been heavily affected by Berenike IV's experiences and sought to avoid her older sister's mistakes while copying her successes. She sought formal recognition from the Roman Republic and often tried to leverage Roman military support. In her personal life, Cleopatra sought out partners who were capable generals instead of marrying relatives. She eventually married Mark Antony, the former friend of her brother-in-law Archelaus.
